How Bengalis Became a Muslim-Majority Nation: Social Evolution of Bengalis in the Middle Ages.
Undoubtedly, the most critical phenomenon in the social life of medieval Bengal was the widespread expansion of Islam. To resist this overwhelming rise, various reform movements emerged among Hindus as well. Chief among them was the Bhakti movement initiated by Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Nabadwip in 1486 CE. Despite these efforts, Bengalis eventually evolved into a Muslim-majority nation.
There are wide-ranging disagreements regarding why, how, and by what mechanisms an ideology born in the harsh deserts of distant Arabia exerted such a profound influence on the fertile soil of Bengal that the majority of its population embraced Islam.
The first census of British India, conducted in 1872, revealed for the very first time that followers of Islam constituted the majority in rural Bengal. This discovery sent shockwaves through Kolkata’s elite Bhadralok community. Consequently, a narrative gained widespread popularity claiming that Muslim rulers had forcefully converted millions of Hindus through oppression and intimidation.
However, this theory was later discarded as illogical and baseless. In the words of Swami Vivekananda:
“The Mohammedan conquest of India came as a salvation to the downtrodden, to the poor. That is why one-fifth of our people have become Mohammedans. It was not the sword that did it all. It would be the height of madness to think it was all the work of sword and fire.”
Today, many historians and scholars maintain that, driven by the oppression of orthodox Brahmins, a vast segment of Bengal’s marginalized population first embraced Buddhism or Jainism, and subsequently converted to Islam from those traditions.
To understand the historical context of the expansion of Islam on the soil of Bengal, we must briefly discuss the broader history of India.
In Indian history, Mahapadma Nanda, the founder of the Nanda dynasty, belonged to the Shudra caste; the Mauryan dynasty was also of Shudra origin, and Emperor Ashoka the Great was himself a Mauryan. For this reason, the influence of Brahmins diminished significantly during the Nanda and Mauryan eras.
During the Mauryan period, under the patronage of Buddhist kings, the prominence of the Vaishya community grew. Many of the Buddha’s disciples were established, wealthy merchants. Consequently, the people of India during that era turned against the Varnashrama (caste-based) system. At this juncture, the Brahmin community strove to re-establish the Varnashrama system and reclaim their privileges by composing various Smriti texts.
Then came the Gupta Empire. Under the patronage of the Gupta kings, the social and economic status of Brahmins rose once again. The Gupta era is often termed the “Golden Age” for Indian Brahmins. It was during this period that various Puranas were composed, through which Brahmins resumed preaching the Varnashrama order. To solidify the supremacy of the caste system during this era, the Bhagavad Gita was extracted from the Mahabharata and accorded the status of an independent sacred scripture.
Alongside this, Brahminical oppression of the Buddhist population began under state patronage. Tax-free lands belonging to Buddhists were confiscated and distributed among Brahmins. The Brahmins of Gauda collected taxes from the Buddhists. During the Gupta period, Adi Shankaracharya declared Gautama Buddha to be the ninth avatar of Vishnu, thereby orchestrating the assimilation of Buddhism into Hinduism.
Through various manufactured narratives, local Jain and Buddhist temples were seized. Looking closely at many Shiva temples in Bengal, one can observe “Bhairava statues” guarding these Shaivite shrines as protectors. These Bhairava figures were originally statues of the Buddha, Mahavira, or various Buddhist and Jain Tirthankaras. This clearly demonstrates that these Shiva temples were originally Jain or Buddhist shrines, which were subsequently taken over and converted into Shiva temples by Brahmins.
The Jagannath Temple in Puri, the Bhaskareswar Temple in Bhubaneswar, and the Bargabhima Temple in Tamluk serve as prominent examples of Buddhist monasteries being transformed into Hindu temples.
Acharya Dinesh Chandra Sen wrote:
“Many Hindu deities were adopted from Buddhist Tantra. The goddess ‘Tara’ originated in Buddhism, and the Buddha meditating beneath a tree is today’s Jateswar Shiva. Hindus stripped Buddhist and Dom scholars of their livelihoods and forcibly took away their right to worship in the temples. The names of Domacharyas are well known in Buddhist literature. Those Buddhist priests who performed Tantric rituals and consumed impure substances likely evolved into the ‘Methar’ (sweeper) class over time. The word itself appears to be a corruption of the term ‘Mahattara’.“
“Upon hearing the name of a Buddhist monastery, Hindus would cover their ears; children were taught that pronouncing this sinful name was forbidden.” Residents of villages adjacent to Buddhist-majority settlements “would never speak the name of that village in the morning; if necessary, they would refer to it as ‘the eastern village’ or ‘the western village’.“
After the death of Emperor Shashanka, the 400-year Buddhist Pala rule began in Bengal. Although Buddhism was the state religion of Bengal during the Pala era, it did not have much impact on upper-caste Hindus. However, the lower castes—such as the Hari, Muchi, Dom, and Bagdi—were heavily influenced by Buddhism. Under the oppression of upper-caste Hindus, the misery of these outcast groups knew no bounds. Thus, to escape Brahminical tyranny, a vast segment of these marginalized communities embraced Buddhism. Since the king was Buddhist, Brahmins were unable to persecute them during this period.
However, when Pala rule ended and Sena rule re-established Brahminism as the state religion, upper-caste Hindu Brahmins resumed their oppression of these outcast communities. If donations and offerings were not paid properly, Brahmins would hurl curses at them; they did not even have the right to let their shadow fall upon a Brahmin.
Under the relentless oppression of the Brahmins, outcast communities like the Hari, Muchi, Dom, and Bagdi lived in constant fear of humiliation. They began searching for a way out of this plight. During this time, the arrival of Muslims in Bengal presented them with an opportunity for liberation.
When Brahminical oppression reached its peak on the soil of Bengal, a section of Bengali Buddhists sought refuge in Nepal. Many were forced to adopt Hinduism to save their lives, finding themselves placed at the very bottom of the caste hierarchy. Another group of Buddhists sought the intervention of the Muslim ruler of Delhi, Qutb al-Din Aibak, requesting him to send a Muslim army to Bengal to protect the Buddhists; meanwhile, another group of monks went to Mirzapur to meet Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, urging him to liberate Magadha. This is mentioned in the book History of Buddhism in India, authored by the famous Tibetan historian Lama Taranatha.
Islam’s political entry into Bengal occurred through Bakhtiyar Khalji’s conquest of Nabadwip (Nadia), although trade connections between Arabia and Bengal had existed since ancient times. When Islam arose in Arabia, many Muslim fakirs and dervishes accompanied Arab merchants to Bengal to preach the faith. It is believed that the ancient mosque in present-day Lalmonirhat, Bangladesh, was constructed during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). However, the expansion of Islam accelerated rapidly after Bakhtiyar’s conquest of Bengal.
The neglected outcasts of society viewed the arrival of Islam in Bengal as their “deliverer.” They believed that Dharma Thakur himself had arrived in the guise of a Muslim to protect his devotees.
We see a reflection of this in the poem “Niranjaner Rushma” (The Wrath of Niranjan), written by Ramai Pandit during this period—
“In the city of Jajpur,
There are sixteen hundred households of Vedic Brahmins;
They extort taxes from all and demand double.
They go door to door demanding religious fees (dakshina),
And from whichever home they receive none,
They burn that household down with their curses.
In Maldah, taxes are imposed;
They recognize neither friend nor foe,
Leaving no way to escape their net.
They have grown exceedingly powerful,
Gathering in groups of ten or twenty
To destroy those who follow the true path (Sadhamma).
Reciting Vedic incantations,
Fires erupt repeatedly,
And seeing this, everyone trembles in terror.
Grieved to the core of their hearts,
All cry out: ‘O Lord, protect our faith!
Who else but You can deliver us?’
In this manner, the twice-born (Brahmins)
Are destroying creation,
And a great injustice has come to pass.
Residing in Vaikuntha, Dharma
Felt deep sorrow in His heart,
And an illusory darkness descended over all.
Dharma assumed the form of a Muslim (Yavana),
A black cap upon His head,
A bow and arrow shining in His hand.
Mounted on a fine horse,
He struck terror across the three worlds,
Chanting the single name of Khoda.
The formless, stainless Lord (Niranjan)
Took incarnation as Bhest (Bhishti/Paradise),
Proclaiming the message of Dammadat.
All the gods, united in single mind,
Joyfully donned trousers (ijar).
Brahma became Muhammad,
Vishnu became the Prophet (Peygambar),
And Shiva (Shulapani) became Adam.
Ganesha became a Gazi,
Kartikeya became a Qazi,
And all the sages turned into Fakirs.
Casting off his disguise,
Narada became a Sheikh,
And Indra (Purandar) became a Maulana.
The Sun, the Moon, and other deities
Became foot soldiers,
Joining together to play musical instruments.
Goddess Chandika herself
Became Haya Bibi,
And Padmavati became Bibi Nur.
All the deities, united in purpose,
Entered the city of Jajpur.
They broke down temples and shrines,
Seized and devoured goods in delight,
Shouting the war cry: ‘Seize them! Seize them!’
Clasping the feet of Dharma,
Ramai Pandit sings:
‘This is indeed a terrible chaos!’
Thus, Muslim rule offered the outcast classes of Bengal an avenue of escape from Brahminical persecution and social humiliation. Fisherman who had been barred from seafaring during the Sena era due to prohibitions on ocean travel were also relieved. Islam brought a ray of hope to the untouchable people who had long been denied human dignity in the caste-based Brahminical society. In vast numbers, they began embracing Islam.
During the Sena period, lower-caste Hindus held no place in state administration. Under Muslim rule, however, opportunities in government service were made available to everyone regardless of caste, creed, or religion, with lower-caste Hindus being appointed to high offices. Enchanted by this openness of Islam, many lower-caste individuals embraced the faith.
Brahminical oppression was a significant reason behind lower-caste Hindus and Buddhists adopting Islam, but it was not the sole factor. Many upper-caste individuals converted as well. The personal character and religious devotion of Islamic preachers who arrived from the Middle East exerted a profound influence on people’s minds. The populace believed these Sufi peers and fakirs possessed miraculous powers—a perception that likely stemmed from their proficiency in medical science.
In the Hindu-Buddhist era, the benefits of Ayurvedic medicine were out of reach for the common people; physicians (vaidyas) treated only upper-caste and elite individuals. When sick, common folk had no recourse other than charms, incantations, and exorcisms. The Muslim Sufis and dervishes, who traversed perilous routes from the distant Middle East to preach the faith, were skilled in Arabian medical practices. Settling near human habitations along riverbanks, they administered medical care to the common people alongside preaching religious discourses. Consequently, poor and lower-caste individuals gathered at their hermitages in large numbers, with many becoming their murids (disciples).
According to American historian Richard Eaton, Muslim preachers from the Middle East encouraged local inhabitants to clear forests and cultivate land to alleviate poverty. Clearing the coastal jungle in Southern Bengal and rendering the saline land arable was no simple task. Taking the initiative themselves, the Muslim preachers secured vast tracts of land on lease (patta) from the Sultans, cleared the forests with the help of their disciples, and turned them into cultivable land. Through their tireless labor, agriculture began to flourish across vast expanses of Southern Bengal. People from various parts of the region flocked to join the agricultural work on these lands, and many subsequently embraced Islam.
The buying and selling of slaves had been practiced in India since ancient times. In the 4th century BCE, Strabo wrote:
“In India, parents who are unable to marry off their young daughters due to poverty bring their newly youthful daughters to the market to sell them for marriage.”
This custom persisted in Bengal through the Middle Ages. Until relatively recent times, Vaishnavas sold female ascetics in markets at places like Ramkeli and Nabadwip. Typically, the price of such a girl was five sikas (one rupee and four annas).
In the early 19th century, the poet Dasharathi satirized this practice, writing:
“Paying five sikas to Gosaki, he marries her along with her son, a prominent leader high in lineage.”
Foreign Muslim soldiers and traders who came in search of fortune purchased these maidens, married them, and settled permanently in Bengal. Over time, their numbers grew significantly.
In addition, many people embraced Islam purely for religious and ideological reasons. During the Middle Ages, the decaying state of pre-existing religious traditions helped solidify and expand the influence of Islam on the soil of Bengal.
The medieval era was a period of decline for both Hinduism and Buddhism. Among the sects that wielded influence in Bengali Hindu society at the time, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Vaishnavism were the primary ones. Besides these three major traditions, numerous other sects existed, including Saura, Ganapatya, Pashupata, Pancharatra, Kapalika, and Kaula. Constant rivalries and conflicts persisted among these various sects.
Acharya Dinesh Chandra Sen wrote:
Yet all this pales in comparison to the conflict between Shaktas and Vaishnavas in Assam. When Narayana, a disciple of Shankara, refused to bow before the image of Durga, King Naranarayana ordered his servants to break Narayana’s right arm. Furthermore, the king decreed that if Narayana Dasa and another disciple, Gokula Dasa, still refused to bow to the Goddess, they would be sentenced to death. As a consequence of such terrible oppression, the peace-loving Vaishnavas ultimately turned desperate and rebelled like the Sikhs; casting aside their rosaries, they took up swords and killed King Lakshmi Singha (1780 CE). In Assam, the Vaishnava force grew formidable and seized the throne.”
“The severity of the feud between Shaktas and Vaishnavas as witnessed in Assam was unseen in any other region of greater Bengal.
In the Chaitanya Charitamrita, it is recorded that when someone left bilva leaves smeared with sandalwood and vermilion alongside Chandi worship flowers at Srivasa’s house in Nabadwip, how furious the Vaishnavas grew! It is said that for this offense, the perpetrator was struck with leprosy!
In the Narottama-Vilasa, we see that upon the death of the Vaishnava guru Narottama, the Shaktas followed behind his corpse, mocking and clapping their hands (see Narottama-Vilasa).
The Vaishnavas would not utter the name of Kali; hence, they referred to ink (kali) in an inkpot as sehai. Since the names of items used in Shakti worship were forbidden to them, they called the jaba (hibiscus) flower the ‘Or flower‘. The word kata (to cut/chop) was prohibited in their vocabulary, so they referred to chopping vegetables as ‘banana (Chopping)‘.
Every community had its own distinct rites, practices, and methods of worship. Many practices and customs of these sects would appear objectionable and obscene through the lens of the modern era.
For instance, one could mention the Sabarotsava ritual associated with the Durga Puja celebrations of that era.
Historian Niharranjan Ray wrote:
“During the Sharadiya Durga Puja, a festival of dance and song called Sabarotsava was celebrated on the tenth day (Dashami). In villages and towns, groups of men and women would smear themselves with mud, wear nothing but tree leaves, and engage in frantic, wild dancing while performing various sexually suggestive gestures and singing explicit songs. It was believed that failing to do so would anger the Goddess Bhagavati. This is mentioned in the contemporary text Kalaviveka and the nearly contemporaneous or slightly later Kalika Purana. The Brihaddharma Purana describes a few restrictions regarding this, but those did not apply to Shakti worshippers. It was believed that performing such acts brought pleasure to the Goddess…. Similar ceremonies were prevalent during the Holaka (Holi) festival in spring and the Kama-Mahotsava in the month of Chaitra. The Kalaviveka states that during Kama-Mahotsava, the God of Love (Kamadeva) is pleased if one dances and sings with various sexual gestures and vulgar expressions, resulting in the attainment of wealth and offspring. This was perhaps the ‘conscience’ (viveka) of that contemporary era.”
In the Middle Ages, details about several Tantric modes of sadhana are known. Although the Tantric community was generally considered Shakta, there were also Tantric Shaiva, Vaishnava, and Buddhist sects. If someone wished to join this fold, they had to be initiated by a member of that sect. After various daytime rituals, the initiate had to declare that they abandoned all their previous religious convictions, and as proof, their Vriddhi-Shraddha (a ritual marking spiritual rebirth) was performed. At night, the guru and disciple, along with eight Vamachari Tantric men and eight women (a dancer, a weaver’s daughter, a courtesan, a washerwoman, a barber’s wife or daughter, a Brahmin woman, a landlord’s daughter, and a milkmaid), entered a dark room, with one woman seated beside each man. The guru would then instruct the disciple as follows:
‘From this day onward, you shall abandon shame, hatred, concepts of purity and impurity, and caste discrimination. You shall satisfy your sensory desires through wine, meat, and sexual intercourse, but you must always remember the tutelary deity Shiva, considering wine and meat as instruments for merging into the supreme realm (Brahmapada).’
Following this, after performing various rituals and chanting mantras, everyone consumed wine and meat—beef was not excluded either. As he drank, the disciple would become completely intoxicated, at which point he attained the state of Avadhuta and received a new name. Afterward, the guru and others would depart, leaving only the disciple and one woman behind.
Tantrics engaged in many other gruesome behaviors, such as sitting atop a human corpse, drinking alcohol out of a human skull alongside naked men and women, and similar acts.
The Vaishnava Sahajiyas also established the concept of Parakiya (extramarital) love on the foundation of this Tantric philosophy. Their ultimate goal was to attain God through love. Therefore, this love had to be experienced first through physical love between a man and a woman. Since attraction toward another woman is often stronger than toward one’s own wife, this was seen as the first step; though initially a physical and base impulse, it was believed to gradually transform into divine love.
The Sahajiyas were divided into many branches—such as Aul, Baul, Sai, Dervish, Nyara, Sahajiya, and others. Additionally, sects like Kartabhaja, Spashtadayaka, Sakhibhavaka, Kishori, Bhajani, Ramballabhi, Jaganmohini, Gaurabadi, Sahebdhani, Pagalnathi, Gobrai, and others were encompassed within the broader Sahajiya category. Although significant differences existed among the religious doctrines, social customs, and sadhana methods of these various branches, all of them acknowledged Gurubada (devotion to the guru), the unrestricted mixing of men and women, and the supremacy of Parakiya love.
Surprisingly, a document from 1717 CE reveals that the contemporary leaders of the Vaishnava community held a public debate—mediated by senior officials of Alivardi Khan—and officially accepted the doctrine that Parakiya love was superior to Svakiya (marital) love (Banga-Sahitya-Parichaya, Vol. 2, pp. 1638–39).
In the Buddhist text Kathavatthu, a practice called Ekadhippayo is mentioned, according to which physical union could occur if a man and a woman were mutually attracted to each other.
The Kartabhaja sect was founded in the 18th century by a saint named Aulchand. Members of this sect regarded the Karta or guru as the direct incarnation of God or Krishna, worshipping him as their tutelary deity. Over time, this sect flourished greatly and its followers grew tremendously in number. Women formed the vast majority of this group, and just as the Gopis worshipped Krishna with heart and soul, these women worshipped the guru in the same manner.
In some sects, devotion to the guru reached such an extreme that a bride was required to dedicate her wedding night to the guru. In other places, local kings, zamindars, or village headmen usurped the role of the guru. This crude practice was known as the Guru-Prasadi custom.
Regarding the early medieval period, the Kalaviveka records the use of obscene language and actions during Durga Puja. Such obscenities remained integral to Durga Puja until the late medieval era. A foreign eyewitness account from the period of British rule describes:
“Once the daytime worship is concluded, a troupe of prostitutes begins dancing and singing in front of the Goddess’s idol at the homes of wealthy individuals. Their clothing is so sheer that it can hardly be called coverage for the body. The songs are exceedingly obscene and the dance postures deeply vulgar. They are unfit for utterance or description in any refined society, yet the audience enjoys them thoroughly without feeling any shame.”
The author witnessed this scene in 1806 CE at the residence of Raja Rajkrishna in Kolkata.
Regarding the sacrifice of goats and buffaloes during the puja, he wrote:
“The father of the current Maharaja of Nadia sacrificed a single goat on the first day of puja. Thereafter, he doubled the number every day, sacrificing a total of 32,448 goats over 16 days. Once the sacrifices were completed, the onlookers—both rich and poor—smeared themselves with the blood-soaked mud of the slaughtered animals, began dancing like madmen, and then took to the streets, dancing and singing obscene songs as they proceeded to other puja venues.”
The author of Chaitanya Bhagavata lamented that devotional Vaishnavism had disappeared. What persisted in the name of religion was either Tantric sadhana or the worship of folk deities.
Describing one such Tantric ritual, he wrote:
“At night, chanting mantras, they bring five maidens.
Bringing along various items and provisions,
Food, offerings, fragrant garlands, and fine clothes;
After feast and drink, they indulge in sensory pleasures together.”
This decline of medieval Hindu society also left its mark on the literature composed during that era. The noble ideal of Radha and Krishna’s love existed in Bengal prior to Sri Chaitanya, but it had largely lost its spiritual purity, devolving into a symbol of physical indulgence between men and women.
Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda gained admiration across India. However, the realistic depiction of physical passion and the explicit descriptions of Radha and Krishna’s amorous play rendered by Jayadeva are such that a refined Bengali today would feel embarrassed to read the text publicly or before family members.
Regarding Baru Chandidas’s Srikrishnakirtana, a critic of Vaishnava literature observed that:
“Due to the overwhelming presence of erotic sentiment (Adirasa), the work almost borders on pornography.”
In Srikrishnakirtana, the protagonist Krishna repeatedly tells Radha that he incarnated on Earth specifically to enjoy her physical body (“I took avatar on Earth for your physical pleasure”). Many scholars believe this work was composed shortly before the birth of Sri Chaitanya.
Thus, spanning a period of three hundred years starting from Jayadeva, the overt depiction of lust and the glorification of Parakiya love under the guise of Radha-Krishna’s divine love tainted the practice of Vaishnavism.
The common, pious people of Bengal were desperately seeking a way out of the vulgarity, corruption, and immorality practiced in the name of religion. During this time, the advent of Islam provided them with the path they had been yearning for. The pure, immaculate character and profound spirituality of Muslim religious leaders—such as peers and fakirs—exerted a deep and lasting influence on the minds of the Bengali populace.
Even King Ballala Sena himself (or Lakshmana Sena according to some accounts, as recorded in contemporary texts or the Sekhasubhodaya) was so enamored by the spirituality of the Muslim Sufi saint Jalaluddin Tabrizi that he became his disciple. He granted land to Jalaluddin Tabrizi for the construction of a shrine (dargah) and to cover its annual expenses—an event explicitly mentioned in the Sekhasubhodaya.
Influenced by these fakirs and dervishes, many among the common, devout people of Bengal embraced Islam during this era.
The early Bengali Muslim society was formed primarily of the initial Turkish military forces and converted lower-caste Hindus. Over time, however, many educated and aristocratic Muslims arrived in Bengal from abroad. Though small in number, they merged with the local converted Muslims to give birth to a higher level of education and culture in Bengal.
In the early sixteenth century, the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa wrote regarding the noble Muslims residing near one of Bengal’s principal ports:
“The Muslims wear white gowns reaching down to their ankles, underneath which they wrap a cloth around the waist like a lungi, and from a silk sash tied around the waist hangs a silver-mounted sword. They wear multiple gem-encrusted rings on their fingers and fine cotton caps on their heads. They are fond of luxury—both men and women are accustomed to fine food and wine. Each has three, four, or more wives. The women wear valuable clothes and ornaments, but they live in seclusion (purdah). Dance and music are very dear to them, and everyone maintains many servants. Common folk wear short tunics and turbans on their heads; all wear shoes, with the footwear of the wealthy featuring silk and gold embroidery.
Higher education among Muslims was generally imparted through the Persian language, though many also studied Arabic. Maktabs and Madrasas existed for learning, which were established by the Sultans. Facilities for education were also maintained at the shrines (dargahs) of the Sufis.
Primary education was conducted in the Bengali language. Generally, foreigners and a small minority of elite Muslims used Urdu, while everyone else spoke in Bengali. In Muslim society, affluent families took special care regarding the education of their sons and daughters. Educational facilities were also available at mosques, where everyone read the Holy Quran and learned one or more other subjects.
Marriage alliances were often finalized at an early age, though the marriage itself did not take place before attaining maturity. The groom would arrive at the bride’s house in a procession riding a horse, where the Mullah performed the marriage in the presence of a Qazi. In wealthy households, feasting, dancing, and music continued for multiple days. Many folk customs and rituals associated with Hindu marriages were also prevalent within the Muslim community.”
A pleasant picture of medieval Bengali Muslim society can be found in Kabikankan Mukundaram’s Chandimangal. It can be inferred that in major towns and cities, Muslims resided in their own distinct neighborhoods.
“Rising at the break of dawn (Fajr),
Spreading out a red mat,
They offer prayers (Namaz) five times a day.
Holding Suleimani rosary beads in hand,
They chant the names of peers and prophets,
And light evening lamps at the shrines (mokam) of the saints.
Ten to twenty brethren (beradar)
Sit together to discuss
The holy texts and the Quran day after day.
Some sit in the marketplace
Distributing shirini (sweet offerings) dedicated to the peers,
While drums (dagar) and ceremonial flags (nishan) play at dusk.
Exceedingly wise and learned (danisband),
They know no deceit or hypocrisy,
And will not break their fast (Roza) even at the cost of life.
If they see anyone with an uncovered head,
They refuse to speak with him,
Instead, striking the disciple’s head with a stick.
Adopting the attire of the Westerners (Kamboj),
They keep no hair on their heads,
While allowing their beards to cover their chests.
Steadfast upon their own path,
They wear ten-panel caps upon their heads
And don trousers (ijar) tied firmly with a cord.
Wearing his ceremonial cap (topor),
The village elder (Miya) takes his seat,
Wiping his hands on clothes after finishing his meal.”
Source:
Indian Social System – Dr. Bhupendranath Datta
History of Bengal (Medieval Era) – Ramesh Chandra Majumdar
History of Bengal (Social Evolution) – Dr. Bhupendranath Datta
Brihat Banga (Greater Bengal) – Dinesh Chandra Sen
History of the Bengalis (Bangalir Itihas) – Niharranjan Ray
Sri Sri Gita Govindam – Jayadeva
Srikrishnakirtana – Mahakavi Chandidas
History of Greater Tamralipta – Yudhishthir Jana
Temples of Kalinga (Kalingar Deb Deul) – Narayan Sanyal
Works and Teachings of Swami Vivekananda (Swami Vivekanander Bani O Rachana)
বাংলা এবং বাঙালির জন্য লড়াইকে এগিয়ে নিয়ে যেতে আমাদের সাহায্য করুন।
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